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Influence of Pagan and Jewish Concepts on Christian Theology

Christian theology has, throughout its history, engaged with and sometimes incorporated concepts from both pagan and Jewish thought, leading to various developments and controversies. This interaction is evident in the early church's apologetic efforts, the medieval mystical traditions, and later philosophical movements [1, 4].

From its earliest stages, Christianity encountered existing philosophical and religious systems. Early Christian apologists, for instance, often sought to demonstrate that Christianity possessed a philosophy comparable to, or even superior to, that of paganism. This sometimes led to attempts to align Christian doctrines with prevailing philosophical ideas, such as Platonism, to the extent that some interpreted biblical teachings through a Platonic lens [4]. The challenge in these endeavors was to avoid subordinating biblical truth to external philosophical frameworks, a problem that persisted as various philosophies gained prominence [4].

One significant area of influence from pagan thought, particularly Eastern and Semitic traditions, is pantheism. Stoicism, for example, is noted for including the pantheism of the Orientals, alongside elements found in Semitic religions [5]. This philosophical current, which posits an essential oneness of God and humanity, has resurfaced in various forms throughout Christian history. Medieval German mystics, for instance, taught the "oneness of Deity and humanity," a concept that later speculative philosophy also embraced as a fundamental idea of Christianity [1]. This monistic principle, which denies any real dualism between God and humanity, can lead to a reinterpretation of core Christian doctrines like sin and grace. If humanity is merely a "modus existendi" of God, then sin might be understood as an imperfect development rather than a transgression, and human agency becomes a form of divine activity, leaving no room for traditional concepts of human responsibility or divine grace [14]. The philosopher Hegel, for example, interpreted biblical teachings about Christ not as pertaining to an individual, but to humanity as a whole, an idea that some theologians found significant [3].

The influence of Jewish concepts on Christian theology is also profound, though often marked by a tension between continuity and distinction. Early Christianity emerged from a Jewish context, and many of its foundational concepts are rooted in Jewish thought and scripture. However, as Christianity developed, it also sought to differentiate itself from Judaism. Despite this, certain Jewish doctrines and practices periodically re-emerged or gained influence within Christian communities. These included ideas such as the merit of works, the necessity and saving efficacy of external rites, the expectation of a visible kingdom of Christ characterized by worldly grandeur, the concept of an external church outside of which there is no salvation, a priestly understanding of the ministry, and the development of a church hierarchy [2]. These elements, which Charles Hodge describes as "Judaism, somewhat spiritualized, but still essentially Judaic," became ascendant in certain periods of Christian history [2].

The concept of religion itself, in its objective sense, is often understood as a "modus Deum colendi" (a way of worshipping God), distinguishing between different religious systems like Pagan, Mohammedan, or Christian religions [6]. Subjectively, religion describes a state of mind, often characterized by faith in God and an awareness of one's relationship to the divine [6]. This broad understanding allows for the recognition of common human religious impulses while also highlighting the distinctiveness of Christian revelation.

The development of Christian doctrine has frequently involved a process of defining itself against perceived errors, whether from within or without. The early church, for example, grappled with Gnosticism and various forms of Platonism, which influenced figures like Origen [8]. Later, controversies such as Sabellianism and Arianism necessitated more precise articulations of doctrines like the Trinity, as seen in the Council of Nicea [8]. These historical developments illustrate a continuous effort to maintain the integrity of Christian teaching while engaging with diverse intellectual and religious currents.

The concept of divine revelation itself has been a point of interaction and distinction. While Christianity affirms the supernatural guidance of the Spirit in communicating truth through Scripture, some mystical traditions, both within and outside Christianity, have posited an immediate, inward revelation from God through feelings and intuitions, independent of the written Word [10, 12]. This "mystical method" suggests that an inward light, rather than Scripture, should be the primary guide for divine truth, a view that stands in contrast to the emphasis on biblical authority in many Christian traditions [10]. Similarly, movements like Montanism, which emphasized continued supernatural guidance of the Spirit, were seen as opposing philosophical speculation and the authority of bishops, leading to their condemnation as heretical [13].

The interaction between Christian theology and external concepts also touches upon ethical and theological questions. For instance, the doctrine of original sin, which posits humanity's inability to do spiritual good in its natural state, has been a subject of philosophical and theological debate [11]. Philosophical theories, such as those by Leibnitz or Schleiermacher, have offered alternative explanations for human moral failings, sometimes limiting the concept of sin or reinterpreting it as an imperfect development [9]. The implications of such reinterpretations can be significant, as they can challenge fundamental Christian understandings of justice, sin, and redemption. For example, if sin is merely an imperfect development, then divine judgments, such as the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah or the scattering of the Jewish people, might be perceived as unjust if they punish individuals for offenses that are not truly their own [7].

Sources

  1. CCEL (Reformed (Old Princeton)) “Charles Hodge, Systematic Theology, Vol. 3, section 5: Nevin, D. D. Philadelphia, 1846. says that the German mystics in the Middle Ages taught “the oneness of Deity and humanity.” The results reached by the mystics under the guidance of feeling, he says, modern philosophy has reached by speculation. This doctrine of the essential oneness of God and man, the speculative theologians adopt as the fundamental idea of Christianity. To work out that idea in a manner compatible with Theism and the Gospel, is the problem which those theologians have attempted to solve. These attempts have resulted, in”
  2. CCEL (Reformed (Old Princeton)) “Charles Hodge, Systematic Theology, Vol. 3, section 78: from the Gospel, and substituting Judaism, somewhat spiritualized, but still essentially Judaic. It is notorious that the Jewish doctrines of the merit of works; of the necessity and saving efficacy of external rites; of a visible kingdom of Christ of splendour and worldly grandeur; of an external church out of whose pale there is no salvation; of the priestly character of the ministry; and of a church hierarchy, soon began to spread among Christians, and at last became ascendant. This being the case it would be strange if the Jewish doct”
  3. CCEL (Reformed (Old Princeton)) “Charles Hodge, Systematic Theology, Vol. 2, section 85: Ages. 357 357 Dr. Ullman, Essay in the Studien und Kritiken for 1846. Hegel says that what the Bible teaches of Christ is not true of an individual, but only of mankind as a whole; and Hegel’s Christological ideas, Dr. John Nevin of Mercersburg, says, “are very significant and full of instruction.” 358 358 Mercersburg Review, January, 1851, pp. 58, 61, 73. Review of Liebner’s Christology, by Rev. John W. Nevin, D. D., Professor of Theology in the Seminary of the German Reformed Church. The objection that these principles are pantheistical”
  4. CCEL (Reformed (Old Princeton)) “Charles Hodge, Systematic Theology, Vol. 2, section 114: the Scriptures; of which truths the Scriptural doctrines are only the temporary forms. Thus Origen made the Bible teach Platonism. The object of most of the early apologists, was to show that Christianity had a philosophy as well as heathenism; and that the philosophy of the former is identical with the philosophy of the latter so far as that of the latter can prove itself to be true. The trouble was, and always has been, that whatever philosophy was assumed to be true, the doctrines of Scripture were made to conform to it or were sublim”
  5. CCEL (Reformed (Old Princeton)) “Charles Hodge, Systematic Theology, Vol. 3, section 79: 1866, vol. i. p. 246, remarks: “If we cast our eyes on a list of the early Stoics and their native places, we cannot avoid noticing how many of this school appear to have come of an Eastern and often of a Semitic stock. This circumstance in connection with affinity in doctrine, goes to show the eastern origin of the Stoic system. It includes the pantheism of the Orientals with some of the elements peculiar to the religion of the Semitic race as we find them in the Bible. This is an inchoate form 768 of the pantheism of the present day. Th”
  6. CCEL (Reformed (Old Princeton)) “Charles Hodge, Systematic Theology, Vol. 1, section 11: to God. Subjectively, it is the inward necessity of union with God. Commonly the word religion, in its objective sense, means “ Modus Deum colendi ,” as when we speak of the Pagan, the Mohammedan, or the Christian religion. Subjectively, it expresses a state of mind. What that state characteristically is, is very variously stated. Most simply it is said to be the state of mind induced by faith in God, and a due sense of our relation to him. Or as Wegscheider expresses it, “ Æqualis et constans 21 animi affectio, qua homo, necessitudinem s”
  7. CCEL (Reformed (Old Princeton)) “Charles Hodge, Systematic Theology, Vol. 2, section 47: come upon the men of his generation. Then it is unjust that the Jews of the present day, and ever since the crucifixion of our Lord, should be scattered and peeled, according to the predictions of the prophets, for the rejection of the Messiah. Then, also, were the deluge sent in wrath upon the world, and the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, and the extermination of the Canaanites, in which thousands of children perished innocent of the offences for which those judgments were inflicted, all acts of stupendous injustice. If this principl”
  8. CCEL (Reformed (Old Princeton)) “Charles Hodge, Systematic Theology, Vol. 1, section 1: 442 § 2. Biblical Form of the Doctrine 443 What that Form is.—Scriptural Proof of the Doctrine.—Progressive Character of Divine Revelation.—Formula of Baptism.—Apostolic Benediction 448 § 3. The Transition Period 448 Necessity for a more Definite Statement of the Doctrine.—Conflict with Error.—Gnostics.—Platonizers.—Origen's Doctrine.—Sabellianism.—Arianism 452 § 4. The Church Doctrine as presented by the Council of Nice 458 Objects for which that Council was convened.—Difference of Opinion among the Members of the Council.—Semi-Arians.—Or”
  9. CCEL (Reformed (Old Princeton)) “Charles Hodge, Systematic Theology, Vol. 2, section 1: § 3. The Condition 119 § 4. The Penalty 120 § 5. The Parties 121 § 6. The Perpetuity of the Covenant 122 CHAPTER VII. THE FALL. § 1. Scriptural Account. — The Tree of Life. — The Tree of Knowledge — The Serpent.—The Temptation.— Effects of the First Sin 123 v CHAPTER VIII. SIN. § 1. Nature of the Question 130 § 2. Philosophical Theories 132 Limitation of Being. — Leibnitz’s Theory. — Antagonism. — Schleiermacher’s Theory. — The Sensuous Theory. — Selfishness 144 Theological Theories . § 3. Doctrine of the Early Church 150 § 4. Pelagian The”
  10. CCEL (Reformed (Old Princeton)) “Charles Hodge, Systematic Theology, Vol. 1, section 7: be admitted by all evangelical Christians. And it is because such Christians do hold to this inward teaching of the Spirit, that they are often called Mystics by their opponents. This, however, is not what is here meant. The mystical method, in its supernatural form, assumes that God by his immediate intercourse with the soul, reveals through the Feelings and by means, or in the way of intuitions, divine truth independently of the outward teaching of his Word; and that it is this inward light, and not the Scriptures, which we are to follow”
  11. CCEL (Reformed (Old Princeton)) “Charles Hodge, Systematic Theology, Vol. 2, section 52: § 15. Inability . The third great point included in the Scriptural doctrine of original sin, is the inability of fallen man in his natural state, of himself to do anything spiritually good. This is necessarily included in the idea of spiritual death. On this subject it is proposed: (1.) To state the doctrine as presented in the symbols of the Protestant churches. (2.) To explain the nature of the inability under which the sinner is said to labour. (3.) To exhibit the Scriptural proofs of the doctrine; and (4.) To answer the objections usu”
  12. CCEL (Reformed (Old Princeton)) “Charles Hodge, Systematic Theology, Vol. 1, section 7: are providentially excited, and by reason of that excitement the mind perceives truth more or less clearly, or more or less imperfectly. Inspiration, in the Scriptural sense, is the supernatural guidance of the Spirit, which renders its subjects infallible in the communicating truth to others. But according to this theory, no man is infallible as a teacher. Revelation and inspiration are in different degrees common to all men. And there is no reason why they should not be as perfect in some believers now as in the days of the Apostles. (2.”
  13. CCEL (Reformed (Old Princeton)) “Charles Hodge, Systematic Theology, Vol. 1, section 25: reformation of manners and strictness of discipline. It enjoined fasts, and other ascetic practices. As it depended on the supernatural and continued guidance of the Spirit, it was on the one hand opposed to speculation, or the attempt to develop Christianity by philosophy; and on the other to the dominant authority of the bishops. Its denunciatory and exclusive spirit led to its condemnation as heretical. As the Montanists excommunicated the Church, the Church excommunicated them. 29 29 See Neander’s Dogmengeschichte, vol. i. Schwegler, ”
  14. CCEL (Reformed (Old Princeton)) “Charles Hodge, Systematic Theology, Vol. 2, section 142: of the speculative, transcendental, or pantheistic philosophy effected an entire revolution, which even such writers as Dorner are accustomed to call “the 731 regeneration of theology.” The leading principle of this philosophy, in all its phases, is Monism, the denial of all real dualism between God and man. If man is only the modus existendi of God, then of course there is an end of all questions about sin and grace. Sin can only be imperfect development, and man’s activity bcing only a form of the agency of God, there is no place for w”
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