Non-Canonical Texts and Their Influence on Biblical Theology
The relationship between non-canonical texts and biblical theology is complex and varies significantly across Christian traditions, primarily concerning the definition and authority of the biblical canon itself. While the canonical Scriptures are universally accepted as authoritative, various other ancient writings have influenced theological thought, devotional practices, or historical understanding, even if they are not considered divinely inspired [5].
The concept of a "canon" refers to the collection of books recognized as divinely inspired and authoritative for faith and practice. Different traditions have slightly different canons, particularly regarding the Old Testament. For instance, the Roman Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodox Churches include books often referred to as "deuterocanonical" (or Apocrypha) in their Old Testament canons, which are not found in the Hebrew Bible or in most Protestant Bibles [5]. The Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion, foundational to Anglicanism, state that "Holy Scripture containeth all things necessary to salvation: so that whatsoever is not read therein, nor may be proved thereby, is not to be required of any man, that it should be believed as an article of the Faith, or be thought requisite or necessary to salvation." This document then specifies the canonical books of the Old and New Testaments, noting that "of whose authority was never any doubt in the Church" [5]. It also lists other books (e.g., Wisdom, Tobit, Judith, Bel and the Dragon) which it states the Church "doth read for example of life and instruction of manners; but yet doth it not apply them to establish any doctrine" [5]. This distinction highlights a common approach to non-canonical texts: they may be useful for moral instruction or historical context but lack doctrinal authority.
Beyond the deuterocanonical books, a vast body of ancient literature exists that is generally categorized as non-canonical. These include various apocryphal gospels, acts, epistles, and apocalypses, such as the Gospel of Thomas, the Gospel of Peter, the Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs, and the Ascension of Isaiah [6, 10]. These texts often provide insights into the diverse theological currents, beliefs, and practices of early Judaism and Christianity. For example, the Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs is a pseudepigraphical work that purports to contain the last words of Jacob's twelve sons, offering ethical instruction and prophecies [6].
The influence of non-canonical texts can be seen in various ways. Some texts, though not canonical, are quoted or alluded to in the canonical Scriptures themselves. For instance, the canonical Epistle of Jude refers to Enoch, the seventh from Adam, and Augustine notes that Jude's epistle cites a prophecy from Enoch [4]. This demonstrates that early Christian writers were aware of and sometimes drew upon traditions found in texts not ultimately included in the New Testament canon. However, Augustine also cautions against admitting too many ancient writings into the ecclesiastical canon, "lest through them false things should be inserted instead of true" [4]. This concern underscores the early Church's careful discernment in establishing the canon to safeguard doctrinal purity.
Theological traditions differ on how they engage with non-canonical texts. For many Protestant traditions, particularly those influenced by the Reformation, the principle of sola Scriptura (Scripture alone) means that only the canonical books are the infallible rule of faith and life. John Calvin, a key figure in Reformed theology, extensively cites and interprets canonical Scripture in his Institutes of the Christian Religion [2, 8, 11]. While he might refer to other ancient writings for historical or illustrative purposes, they do not hold the same authority as the Bible. Charles Hodge, a prominent Old Princeton theologian, emphasizes that theological convictions should be controlled by "Scriptural statements" rather than modern speculative theories [7].
In contrast, some traditions, while upholding the unique authority of the canonical Scriptures, may grant a secondary, albeit significant, role to other texts or traditions. Thomas Aquinas, representing scholastic Catholic theology, argues that sacred doctrine does not argue in proof of its principles (which are articles of faith derived from revelation) but argues from them to prove other truths [3]. This framework allows for theological reasoning that builds upon foundational truths, which can be informed by a broader tradition that includes patristic writings and, to some extent, deuterocanonical texts.
The Eastern Orthodox tradition also values the writings of the Church Fathers, such as John of Damascus, whose An Exact Exposition of the Orthodox Faith systematically articulates Orthodox theology, drawing heavily on both Scripture and earlier patristic consensus [9]. While these patristic writings are not considered canonical Scripture, they are highly authoritative interpretations of Scripture and guides for understanding Christian doctrine.
The existence of non-canonical texts also highlights the selectivity of the canonical process. The Apostle John, at the conclusion of his Gospel, states, "And there are also many other things which Jesus did, the which, if they should be written every one, I suppose that even the world itself could not contain the books that should be written" (John 21:25). This verse, as interpreted by John Gill, suggests that the canonical Gospels present a selective account of Jesus's life and ministry, implying that many other deeds and teachings existed but were not recorded in the inspired texts [1]. This acknowledges the vastness of unrecorded history and tradition, some of which found expression in non-canonical writings.
Sources
- John (Baptist/Reformed) “John Gill on John 21:25: And there are also many other things which Jesus did,.... Which refer not to his doctrines and discourses, his sermons and prayers, and the conversation he had with his disciples, and others, on different accounts; but to the signs, and wonders, and miraculous operations, which were done by him, that are neither recorded in this, nor in any of the evangelists: the which, if they should be written everyone; with all the particular circumstances relating to them: I suppose that even the world itself could not contain the books that should be written. The Arabic versi”
- CCEL (Reformed) “John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, section 5: v OF PASSAGES FROM THE HOLY SCRIPTURES, AND FROM THE APOCRYPHA, WHICH ARE QUOTED, OR INCIDENTALLY ILLUSTRATED, IN THE INSTITUTES.”
- theology (Catholic (Scholastic)) “Aquinas, Summa Theologica, First Part (Prima Pars), The Nature and Extent of Sacred Doctrine, Art. 8: Article: Whether sacred doctrine is a matter of argument? I answer that, As other sciences do not argue in proof of their principles, but argue from their principles to demonstrate other truths in these sciences: so this doctrine does not argue in proof of its principles, which are the articles of faith, but from them it goes on to prove something else; as the Apostle from the resurrection of Christ argues in proof of the general resurrection (1 Cor. 15). However, it is to be borne in mind, i”
- Schaff ANF/NPNF (Patristic) “NPNF1 Vol 2: Augustine — City of God, Christian Doctrine — CHAP.38.--THAT THE ECCLESIASTICAL CANON HAS NOT ADMITTED CERTAIN WRITINGS ON ACCOUNT OF THEIR TOO GREAT ANTIQUITY, LEST THROUGH THEM FALSE THINGS SHOULD BE INSERTED INSTEAD OF TRUE. (part 1): If I may recall far more ancient times, our patriarch Noah was certainly even before that great deluge, and I might not undeservedly call him a prophet, forasmuch as the ark he made, in which he escaped with his family, was itself a prophecy of our times.(2) What of Enoch, the seventh from Adam? Does not the canonical epistle of the Apostle Jude d”
- Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion (Anglican) “Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion (Anglican, 1571), Section 178: Holy Scripture containeth all things necessary to salvation: so that whatsoever is not read therein, nor may be proved thereby, is not to be required of any man, that it should be believed as an article of the Faith, or be thought requisite or necessary to salvation. In the name of the holy Scripture we do understand those Canonical Books of the Old and New Testament, of whose authority was never any doubt in the Church.”
- Introduction “Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs, Introduction, section 71: MLA Style Kirby, Peter. "Historical Jesus Theories." Early Christian Writings . http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/1clement-hoole.html . Gospels Matthew Mark Luke John Acts Letters of Paul Romans 1 Corinthians 2 Corinthians Galatians Ephesians Philippians Colossians 1 Thessalonians 2 Thessalonians 1 Timothy 2 Timothy Titus Philemon Letter to the Hebrews General Letters James 1 Peter 2 Peter 1 John 2 John 3 John Jude Revelation Gospels Gospel of Thomas Egerton Gospel Gospel of Peter Oxyrhychus 840 Gospel of Mary Epistula Apos”
- CCEL (Reformed (Old Princeton)) “Charles Hodge, Systematic Theology, Vol. 2, section 104: and afterwards by the Reformers; how the Rationalists and Supernaturalists of the last generation dealt with it; and how the modern speculative theologians have philosophized about it; and end, generally, by giving in their adhesion to some one of these modern theories more or less modified. All the while there stand the Scriptural statements untouched and unrefuted. They are allowed to go for what they are worth; but they are not permitted to control the writers own convictions. This course is adopted by different men on different princ”
- CCEL (Reformed) “John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, section 109: Index of Scripture References Genesis 1:2 1:26 1:27 1:31 2:7 2:7 2:17 2:18 2:23 2:23 3:7 3:9 3:12 3:15 3:15 3:15 3:22 4:4 4:7 4:10 4:13 6:3 6:5 6:6 6:18 7:21 8:21 9:6 12:12 12:17 14:18 14:18 15:1 15:1 15:5 15:17 16:9 17:7 17:7 17:10 17:10 17:13 17:15 17:27 18:2 18:23 20:3 20:7 21:1 21:12 21:24 22:1 22:8 22:16-18 23:4 23:19 24:7 24:10 26:27 27:28 27:38-39 28:12 28:20 29 30:2 31:19 31:20 31:40-41 32 32:10 32:13 32:29-30 33 34 36:22 37:18 37:28 37:33 38:18 42 43 43:14 45:5 47:9 47:9 47:29-30 48:14 48:16 49:5-6 49:18 Exodus 2:12 3:2 3”
- CCEL (Eastern Orthodox) “John of Damascus, An Exact Exposition of the Orthodox Faith, section 105: Index of Scripture References Genesis 1:1 1:1 1:2 1:2 1:2 1:2 1:2 1:3 1:3 1:5 1:5 1:6 1:6-7 1:8 1:8 1:9 1:10 1:11 1:14 1:22 1:26 1:26 1:26 1:26 1:26 1:26 1:27 1:27 1:28 1:31 1:31 1:31 2 2:2 2:8 2:9 2:9 2:10 2:16 2:16 2:17 2:23 2:25 3 3:1 3:7 3:9 4:1 4:7 4:19 5:3 6:13 6:17 6:18 7:1 7:17 8:11 8:16 8:21 9:3-5 9:6 9:6 11:7 14:18 14:19 15:6 15:16 16:9-10 16:13 17:10 17:12 17:19-20 18:1 18:1 18:10 18:13-14 18:17 18:20 18:20-21 18:25 18:25 18:25-26 19:1 19:1-2 19:24 19:24 19:24 21:1-2 21:17-18 22:12 22:12 22:12 32:26 35:1 35:1 ”
- Introduction “Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs, Introduction, section 72: Fronto Lucian of Samosata Marcus Aurelius Galen Celsus Talmud Philostratus Jewish/Christian The Twelve Patriarchs Non-Pagan Sibyllines Odes of Solomon Book of Elchasai Ascension of Isaiah Hypothesized Sources Passion Narrative Sayings Gospel Q Signs Gospel Anti-Marcionite Prologues Muratorian Canon Kerygmata Petrou Inscription of Abercius”
- CCEL (Reformed) “John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, section 23: of the gospel depends upon it; he merely says that unbelievers would have no certainty of the gospel, so as thereby to win Christ, were they not influenced by the consent of the Church. And he clearly shows this to be his meaning, by thus expressing himself a little before: “When I have praised my own creed, and ridiculed yours, who do you suppose is to judge between us; or what more is to be done than to quit those who, inviting us to certainty, afterwards command us to believe uncertainty, and follow those who invite us, in the f”